According tocommonunderstanding, the Golden Rule exists in a form of maxims and various proverbs. However, in many cultural traditions, this rule is present as part of institutionalized texts and has a specific normative context. The article proposes an account of the Golden Rule within a particular example of the Judeo-Christian tradition (based on a study of the Bible books), in relation to the Lex Talionis and the Commandment of Love, in respect to what the Golden Rule is contextualized, in three stages. Firstly, the main passages, in which these principles are compared and contrasted have been selected in the books of the Bible. Such are the following: Lev. 19.18, 33–34, Matt. 6.37–38; 7.12; 22.40. Secondly, it has been taken into account that the normative content of these principles, although they are expressed in strict formulations, is internally dynamic. When clarifying both the normative context of the Golden Rule and the content of each of the principles, it is necessary to take into account their internal normative dynamism. Thus, Talion, which historically arose as a principle of retribution, limiting the amount of punishment to the degree of harm caused, eventually transformed into a principle of compensation, primarily monetary, and in a later era, early Christian authors reinterpreted it as a principle that admonishes against causing harm to anyone. The Commandment of Love for one’s neighbor covers the spectrum of demands from love for one’s neighbor as a close one through love for one’s neighbor, who is considered a stranger, to love for a neighbor, who is actually a foe. The normative dynamics of the Golden Rule can be traced in its two formulas – negative and positive. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the examples of thinking in the spirit of the Golden Rule, which are found in the oldest Bible books. Thirdly, the three principles are compared in their imperative characteristics by a number of parameters, regarding which similarities and differences between them are presented in different configurations.

Keywords:

the Golden Rule, Lex Talionis, Commandment of Love, normative dynamics, Judeo-Christian tradition, the Bible, normative ethics, morality.

Ruben G. Apressyan – Doctor of Science (Philosophy), Professor,
Chief Researcher, Head of the Ethics Sector, e-mail: apressyan@iph.ras.ru,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2473-3909

1. Hertzler J.O. On Golden Rules. International Journal of Ethics, 1934, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 418–436.
2. Rost H.T.D. The Golden Rule: A Universal Ethic. Oxford, GeorgeRonald, 1986, 196 p.
3. Kant I. Osnovopolozheniia k metafizike nravov [Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]. Sochineniia na nemetskom i russkom iazykakh. Eds. B. Tushling, N.V. Motroshilova. Moscow, Moskovskii filosofskii fond, 1997, vol III, pp. 39–275.
4. Wattles J. Zolotoe pravilo [The Golden Rule]. Eds. A.A. Guseinov, O.V. Artemieva. Moscow, Institut obshchegumanitarnykh issledovanii, 2016, 346 p.
5. Duxbury N. Golden Rule Reasoning, Moral Judgement and Law. Notre Dame Law Review, 2009, vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 1529–1605.
6. Du Roy O. La règled'or: histoire d'unemaxime morale universelle. Vol. 1: De Confucius à la fin du XIXe siècle. Paris, Les Éditions du Cerf, 2012, vol., 2901 р. Le XXe siècle et essaid'interprétation. Paris, Les Éditions du Cerf, 2012, 600 p.
7. Hruschka J. Die Goldene Regel in der Aufklarung– die GeschichteeinerIdee. JahrbuchfürRecht und Ethik. Annual Review of Law and Ethics, 2004, vol.12, Themenschwerpunkt: ZurEntwicklungsgeschichtemoralischerGrund-Satze in derPhilosophie der Aufklarung. The Development of Moral First Principles in thePhilosophy of the Enlightenmen, pp. 157–172.
8. Hare R. Essays on theMoral Concepts. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1972, pp. 39–54.
9. Csikszentmihalyi M.A. The Golden Rule in Confucianism. The Golden Rule in World Religions. Eds. J. Neusner, B. Chilton. London, Continuum, 2008, pp. 157–169.
10. Camfield B. A Profitable Enquiry into that Comprehensive Rule of Righteousness, Do As You Would Be Done By: Being a Practical Discourse on S. Matt. vii, 12. London, Printed by A.C. for H. Eversden, 1671, 236 р.
11. Reiner H. Die “Goldene Regel”: Die Bedeutung einer sittlichen Grundformel der Menschheit. Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung, 1948, bd. 3, h. 1, pp. 74–105.
12. Schulz H. Die Goldene Regel Versuch einer prinzipienethischen Rehabilitierung. Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik, 2014, bd. 47, h. 1, pp. 193–209.
13. Dihle A. Die goldene Regel: Eine Einfiihrung in die Geschichte der antiken und frtihchristlichen Vulgarethik. Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962, 136 p.
14. Guseinov A.A. Sotsial'naia priroda nravstvennosti [The social nature of morality]. Moscow, Moskovskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1974, 157 p.
15. Tolkovaia Bibliia, ili Kommentarii na vse knigi Sv. Pisaniia Vetkhogo iNovogo Zaveta [The Explanatory Bible, or Commentaries on All the Books of the Holy Scripture]. Chetveroevangelie. Ed. A.P. Lopukhin. Moscow, Dar", 2009, vol. 7, 71232 p.
16. Davis J.F. Lex Talionis in Early Judaism and the Exhortation of Jesus in Matthew 5.38–42. London, T&T Clark International, 2005, 192 р.
17. TertullianK.S.F. Protiv Markiona v piati knigakh [Adversus Marcionem, in V books. Saint Petersburg, Izdatel'stvo Olega Abyshko; Universitetskaia kniga, 2010, 576 p.
18. Zlatoust. Sviashchennoe Pisanie v tolkovaniiakh sviatitelia Ioanna Zlatousta [Holy Scripture as interpreted by St. John Chrysostom]. Tolkovanie na Evangelie ot Matfeia.Moscow, KovchegPubl, 2006, vol. 4, book 1, 624 p.
19. Apresian R.G. Talion i zolotoe pravilo: kriticheskii analiz sopriazhennykh kontekstov [Talion and the golden rule: a critical analysis of associated contexts]. Problems of Philosophy, 2001, no 3, pp. 72–84.
20. Augustine. O Grade Bozhiem [On the city of God]. Tvoreniia. Ed. S.I. Eremeev. Saint Petersburg, Aleteiia; Kiev, UTsIMM-Press, 1998, vol. 4, 587 p.
21. Solov'evV.S. Opravdanie dobra [Justification of the good]. Eds. A.F. Losev, A.V. Gulyga. Moscow, Mysl`, 1988, vol.1, pp. 47–580.
22. Lun' Iui. Konfucianskoe chetveroknizhie [The four books of Confucianism]. Eds. L.S. Perelomov. Moscow, Vostochnaia literatura, RAN, 2004, pp. 151–238.

In Modern times, the Golden Rule, the classical formula of which is contained in the Sermon on the Mount Matthew 7:12, is the subject of discussion in a number of moral and philosophical teachings as a specifically moral concept that partially or completely expresses the normative meaning of morality. It is in the Moderntimes that the rule gets its name of the Golden one. In the article, the modern understanding of the Golden Rule is considered on the basis of Thomas Reid’s ethics, who included the rule formula among the first principles of morality, i.e. self-evident principles that constitute moral thinking, determine moral reasoning, from which the entire system of moral duties is derived, and any person who seeks to understand what his duty is in specific circumstances, based on them, can do this. The main purpose of the Golden Rule, Reid saw in the fact that its application allows you to overcome the individual's partiality for himself and prejudice against others – which turns out to be destructive for human relations. He considers the Golden Rule as the rule of impartiality. The article shows that the special place that Reid assigned to the Golden Rule in the system of first principles was determined by the fact that (1) Reid described only the Golden Rule as the rule of the Divine teacher and overshadowed with the authority of the law and the prophets; (2) he described the rule as “the most comprehensive”, i.e. extending its effect to all possible relations between people – equal and unequal, including the relation of a person to himself, and all types of duties (to himself and others, perfect and imperfect). The article concludes that Reid presented the Golden Rule as an expression of the entire normative content of morality. Therefore, although he did not build a hierarchy of first principles, we can conclude that the Golden Rule by the very logic of Reid in his system turns out to be the highest.

Keywords:

Thomas Reid, The Golden Rule, the first principles of morality, impartiality, universality, morality, ethics, the Modern times.

Olga V. Artemyeva – Candidate of Sciences in Philosophy, Senior Researcher,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8266-8730, e-mail: o_artemyeva@mail.ru.

1. Apressian R.G. O poiavlenii poniatiia «zolotoe pravilo» [On the emergence of the concept ‘Golden rule’]. Eticheskaia Mysl' / Ethical Thought. 2008, no. 8, pp. 194–212.
2. Wattles J. Zolotoe pravilo [The golden rule]. Eds. by A.A. Guseinov, O.V. Artemieva. Moscow, Institut obshchegumanitarnykh issledovanii, 2016, 346 p.
3. Reid R. Essays on the Active Powers of Man. Eds. K. Haakonssen, J.A. Harris, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2010, 388 p.
4. Haakonssen K. Introduction, Thomas Reid on Practical Ethics. Lectures and Papers on Natural Religion, Self-Government, Natural Jurisprudence, and the Law of Nations. Ed. K. Haakonssen. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2007, pp. xi–lxxxix.
5. Cuneo T. Reid's Ethics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition). Ed. E.N. Zalta, available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/reid-ethics/ (accessed 15 May 2021).
6. Irvin T. Reid: Action and Will. The Development of Ethics. A Historical and Critical Study. Vol. II. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 754–811.
7. Ryan N., Yaffe G. Thomas Reid. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition). Ed. E.N. Zalta, available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/reid/ (accessed 21 May 2021).
8. Kant I. Osnovopolozheniia k metafizike nravov [Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals]. Sochineniia na nemetskom i russkom iazykakh: v 4 tomakh. Eds. N. Motroschilova, B. Tuschling. Moscow, Moskovskii filosofskii fond, 1997, vol. 3, pp. 39–275.
9. Sidgwick H. The Methods of Ethics. 7th ed., Cambridge, Indianpolis, Hackett Publishing Company, 1981, 528 p.
10. Clarke S. A Discourse Concerning the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation. The British Moralists: 1650‒1800. Ed. D.O. Raphael. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 191–225.
11. Thomas Reid on Practical Ethics. Lectures and Papers on Natural Religion, Self-Government, Natural Jurisprudence, and the Law of Nations. Ed. K. Haakonssen. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2007, 404 p.
12. Leibniz G.V. Novye opyty o chelovecheskom razumenii [New essays on human understanding]. Moscow, Mysl`, 1983, pp. 47–545.
13. Apressian R.G. Printsip universal'nosti v moral'noi filosofii Immanuila Kanta [The principle of universality in Immanuel Kant's moral philosophy], Universal'nost' v morali. Ed. R.G. Apressian. Moscow, Obshchestvo s ogranichennoi otvetstvennost'iu «Sadra», 2021, pp. 117–123.
14. Aristotle. Nikomakhova etika [The Nicomachean Ethics]. Sobranie sochnenii. Moscow, Mysl’, 1983, vol. 4, pp. 53–294.
15. Aristotle. Ritorika [Rhetoric]. Antichnye ritoriki. Ed. A.A. Tacho-Godi. Moscow, Moskovskii universitet, 1978, pp. 15–164.
16. Apressian R.G. Zolotoe pravilo v ehtike Aristotelia [The Golden Rule in Aristotle's Ethics]. Filosofiia i etika. Sbornik trudov k 70-letiiu akademika RAN A.A. Guseinova [Philosophy and Ethics. Collection of Works for the 70th Anniversary of Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences A.A. Guseinov]. Moscow, Al`fa-M, 2009, pp. 157–170.
17. Reid Th. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man. A Critical Edition. Ed. D.R. Brookes. Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania University Press, 2002, 651 p.
18. Cuneo T. Reid on the First Principals of Morals.Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 2014, vol. 41, no. SI, pp. 102–121.

The paper deals with borders between different tasks of the ethical theory such as defining, explaining, justifying morality, and clarifying its normative content. The focus of the study is justification of morality, i.e. developing the argumentation that can persuade a rational agent to accept moral requirements and to carry them out. The justification of morality uses as its premise some universal human needs or traits and establishesthe essential tie between them and theprincipled fulfillment of moral duty. The fact that everyone has these needs or traits should convince a rational moral skeptic to abandon her skepticism. The immediate subjects of the analysis are 1) precedents of the unreflecting confusion of justification and three other tasks of ethics and 2) conscious efforts to make the scientific explanation of morality a basis of justification. The author supposes that definitions of morality and its evolutionary, psychological, sociological explanations, no matter how neat and sophisticated they are, can not provide a ‘grip’ on a rational agent. At the same time, clarifications of the general normative content of morality also can not justify it because they presuppose that this ‘grip’ is already in place. In this regard, such conceptions of justification as ‘evolutionary’, ‘psychological’, ‘sociological’, ‘utilitarian’, and even ‘contractual’ are impossible. The author also shows that efforts of some theoreticians to base their justifications on the fact that human beings are constituted to be altruistic by evolution (R. Richards) or carrying out moral norms has an enormous beneficial effect on society (R. Campbell, A.V. Rasin) are not very successful. The real justuficatory work in these cases is done not by the appeal to biological or sociological facts but by traditional arguments – the benefit of an agent or the self-evidence of intuitions.

Keywords:

morality, ethics, justification
of morality, definition of morality, explanation of morality, clarification
of the normative content of morality, moral skepticism.

Andrey V. Prokofyev – Doctor of Science (Philosophy), Docent, Leading Researcher,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5015-8226, e-mail: avprok2006@mail.ru.

1. Berlin I. Introduction to Philosophy. Talking Philosophy: Dialogues with Fifteen Leading Philosophers. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 1–27.
2. Scanlon T.M. Being Realistic about Reasons. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014, 132 p.
3. Apresian R.G., Artem'eva O.V., Prokof'ev A.V. Fenomen moral'noi imperativnosti. Kriticheskie ocherki [The phenomenon of moral imperative. Critical Essays]. Moscow, Institut filosofii RAN, 2018, 196 p.
4. Guseinov A.A. Obosnovanie morali kak problema [Justification of morality as a problem]. Moral' i ratsional'nost'. Moscow, Institut filosofii RAN, 1995, pp. 48–63.
5. Razin A.B. Etika: Uchebnik dlia vuzov [Ethics: Textbook for universities]. Moscow, Akademicheskii Proekt, 2006, 624 p.
6. Hume D. Traktat o chelovecheskoi prirode [A treatise of human nature]. Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh. Moscow, Mysl', 1996, vol. 1, pp. 53–656.
7. Richards R.J. A Defense of Evolutionary Ethics. Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 595–628.
8. Richards R.J. Evolutionary Ethics: A Theory of Moral Realism. The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Ethics. Eds. M.Ruse, R.J.Richards. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 143–158.
9. Campbell R. Can Biology Make Ethics Objective? Biology and Philosophy, 1996, vol. 11, pp. 21–31.
10. Korsgaard C.M. Sources of Normativity. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 287 p.
11. Gewirth A. Reason and Morality. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1978, 393 p.
12. Hume D. Issledovanie o printsipakh morali [Research on the principles of morality]. Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh. Moscow, Mysl', 1996, vol. 2, pp. 171–315.
13. Gauthier D.P. Morals by Agreement. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1986, 384 p.
14. Gauthier D.P. Why Contractarianism? Contractarianism and Rational Choice: Essays on David Gauthier’s Morals by Agreement. Ed. P.Vallentyne. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp. 15–30.
15. Sauer H. Debunking Arguments in Ethics. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2018, 244 p.
16. The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Ethics. Eds. M.Ruse, R.J.Richards. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2017. Part III. Against Debunking Arguments, pp. 175–242.
17. Joyce R. The Evolution of Morality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006, 272 p.
18. Joyce R. Evolution and Debunking. Joyce R. Essays in Moral Skepticism. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016, pp. 109–176.

The article attempts to analyze the formation of a new work ethic in modern society through the prism of the post-operaist concept and the theory of "projective city". It is demonstrated that labor has undergone significant changes in comparison with the labor of the Fordist stage, as a consequence of which a new justification of justice and individual good was required, which would promote involvement in project labor. Drawing on the concept of post-Fordist labor, the emergence of such a rationale is examined. The article reveals the key points of post-Fordist theory that deal with the transformation of labor. conditions of post-Fordism. It is shown that, on the one hand, labor becomes immaterial, biopolitical, affective, on the other hand, such features contribute to the formation of new practices of ethical justification of labor. It is demonstrated that the organization of "immaterial labor" or biopolitical labor is formed as a network. At the same time, it is the project that becomes the value model that allows the formation of a new work ethic. Thus, the destruction of hierarchical structures leads to the formation of a network mode of labor organization, which does not allow an answer to the question of the fair distribution of material and symbolic goods. Then project work imposes a certain framework that allows us to restore the procedure of fair evaluation. Through the concept of "projective city" by L. Boltanski and E. Chiapello the logic of development of justification of individual benefits for a person included in hired labor is comprehended. It is revealed that justification is built through increasing the opportunities for self-realization and the expansion of personal freedom. The article shows that the reliance on the concept of "projective city" allows to consider the contradictions associated with the formation of new ethical justifications and value structures. When the apparatus of argumentation of labor involvement in the "projective city" works with the principle of justice and individual good, the worker is offered the opportunity for self-realization and development of his own potential through practices of self-control. The conclusion is that the value changes described above are indicative of the emergence of a new ethic of labor relations.

Keywords:

Post-Operaism, post-Fordism, immaterial labour, biopolitical labour, regimes of engagement, work ethic, projective city, values, justice.

Yana V. Grigorova – Candidate of Sciences in Philosophy, Associate Professor,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1179-8455, e-mail: janasweet@mail.ru.

1. Castel R. Metamorfozy sotsial'nogo voprosa. Khronika naemnogo truda [Metamorphoses of the social question. Chronicle of wage labor]. Saint Petersburg, Aleteiia, 2011, 574 p.
2. Bell D. Griadushchee postindustrial'noe obshchestvo: Opyt sotsial'nogo prognozirovaniia [The coming of post-industrial society: a venture in social forecasting]. Moscow, Academia, 1999, 956 p.
3. Castells M. Informatsionnaia epokha: ekonomika, obshchestvo i kul'tura [The information age economy, society, and culture]. Moscow, Gosudarstvennyi universitet Vysshaia shkola ekonomiki, 2000, 607 p.
4. Pasquinelli M. Tsifrovoi neofeodalizm: krizis setevoi politiki i novaia topologiia renty [Digital neofeudalism. Crisis of network politics and the new topology of rent], available at: http://moscowartmagazine.com/issue/12/article/161 (aссessed 15 August 2021).
5. Srnicek N. Kapitalizm platform [Platform capitalism]. Moscow, Izdatel'skii dom Vysshei shkoly ekonomiki, 2019, 128 p.
6. Florida R. Kreativnyi klass: liudi, kotorye meniaiut budushchee [Creative class: people who change the future]. Moscow, Klassika-XXI, 2005, 422 p.
7. Inglehart R., Welzel K. Modernizatsiia, kul'turnye izmeneniia i demokratiia: Posledovatel'nost' chelovecheskogo razvitiia [Modernization, cultural change, and democracy. ... Cultural change, and democracy. The human development sequence]. Moscow, 2011, 464 p.
8. Gorz A. Nematerial'noe: znanie, stoimost', kapital [Nonmaterial. Intangible. Knowledge, value and capital]. Moscow, Gosudarstvennyi universitet Vysshaia shkola ekonomiki, 2010, 208 p.
9. Srnicek N., Williams A. Izobretaia budushchee: postkapitalizm i mir bez truda [Inventing the Future: Post-Capitalism and a World Without Labor]. Moscow, Strelka Press, 2019, 336 p.
10. Shuliko G.A. Uprazdnenie raboty kak filosofskaia problema: k istorii voprosa v ХХ veke [Abolition of work as a philosophical problem: on the history of the issue in the ХХ century]. Filosofskaia Shkola, 2019, no. 7, pp. 108-113. DOI 10.2441/2541-7673-2019-10710
11. Virno P. Grammatika mnozhestva: k analizu form sovremennoi zhizni [Grammar of the set: to the analysis of the forms of modern life]. Moscow, Ad Marginem, 2013, 170 p.
12. Hardt M., Negri A. Mnozhestvo. Voina i demokratiia v epokhu imperii [War and democracy in the age of the empire]. Moscow, Kul'turnaia revoliutsiia, 2006, 559 p.
13. Boltanski L., Kyapello E. Novyi dukh kapitalizma [The new spirit of capitalism]. Moscow, Novoe Literaturnoe Obozrenie, 2011, 976 p.
14. Weber M. Protestantskaia etika i dukh kapitalizma [Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism]. Izbrannye proizvedeniia. Moscow, Progress, 1990, 808 p.
15. Sennett R. Kapitalizm v bol'shom gorode: globalizatsiia, gibkost' i bezrazlichie [Capitalism in a big city: globalization, flexibility and indifference]. Logos, 2008, no. 3, pp. 95–107.
16. Lash S., Urry J. The End of Organized Capitalism. Wisconsin, Wisconsin University Press, 1987, 392 p.

The aim of this paper is the situation analysis or case study of the conflict between the cosmetics manufacturer "NATURA SIBERICA" (Russia) and its consumers. This conflict took place in 2017 as an interaction of the users of social networks. The importance of this study is that its object is the ongoing process of increasing the role that network society plays in discussing the value problems of contemporary society. This study shows the relevance of J. van Dyck's statement that digitalization promotes the transfer of communication about values in media network, and this constitutes the novelty of the paper. Accordingly, the objectives of the study were formulated as a description of the conflict situation and the definition of the subject of research as a manifestation of the complex interaction in contemporary network society; identifying the groups of irreducible values that caused the conceptual conflict; the analysis of these values from the perspective of law, as well as contemporary business ethics. The methodological approach that was chosen followed the complex nature of the subject of the study. As a general methodological approach the systematic method was used, which allows to determine the essence and key properties of the investigated phenomenon. The method of case analysis or case-study gave us the tools to implement this approach, taking into account the specifics of the object, as well as to connect the study to the practical task of finding the best solution in a situation of conflict of values. To analyze the unfolding of the conflict in conditions of virtual reality the structural-functional method was applied, which allowed conceptualizing the relationship between social phenomena of different levels. Using the method of ethical-philosophical analysis we revealed the content of the positions expressed by the participants of the conflict. The method of categorical analysis of legal texts was also applied. As a result of the study it was revealed that in a case of the gap in legal regulation it were the animal rights values and values of responsible consumption that provided the conceptual background for the positions articulated by the conflict participants. Next, we show that in this case the unfair advertising led to a crisis of consumers’ trust and caused the need to strengthen the ethical image of the company. Finally, this case of the company's reaction to the conflict could be conceptualized as an example of “best practice” for business ethics today.

Keywords:

business ethics, trust, onflict of values, legal regulation of business, responsible consumption, cruelty to animals, best practices, “NATURA SIBERICA”, J. van Dyck.

 Igor Yu. Larionov – Candidate of Sciences in Philosophy, Associate Professor,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0180-0304, e-mail: i.larionov@spbu.ru.

© Svetlana N. Orlova – Master in Applied Ethics, Wine Specialist,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2074-6136, e-mail: svetlana.n.orlova@gmail.com

1. Sychev A.A., Iakina L.A., Kurmaeva K.K. Metod situatsionnogo analiza (keis-stadi) v ekologicheskoi etike [The method of situational analysis (case study) in environmental ethics]. V Mire Nauchnykh Otkrytii, 2013, no.11-5 (47), pp.329-334.

2. Larionov I.Iu., Perov V.Iu. Nravstvennye konflikty i obrazovatel'nye tekhnologii «case study» [Moral conflicts and educational technologies of "case study"]. Conflictology, 2016, vol.3, pp.217-231.

3. Yin R. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London, Sage Publications, 2009, 219 p.

4. Chernova I.V. Panty i krov' v narodnoi meditsine naseleniia Saiano-Altaiskogo regiona v kontse XIX-XX vv. [Antlers and blood in folk medicine of the population of the Sayan-Altai region at the end of the 19th-20th centuries]. Bulletin of the Altai State University, 2009, no.4-3 (64), pp.250-252.

5. Rakhmanova Vladislava. Razbor mediaskandala s Natura Siberica, sviazannogo s ispol'zovaniem ekstrakta olen'ikh rogov - Analitik issledovatel'skoi gruppy Digibility Insights Stanislav Nikulin ob analize kharaktera obsuzhdeniia i rabote s kritikoi v internete [Analysis of the media scandal with Natura Siberica related to the use of deer antlers extract - Analyst of the Digibility Insights research group Stanislav Nikulin on the analysis of the nature of the discussion and work with criticism on the Internet]. Vc.ru, 2017, 17 July, available at: https://vc.ru/marketing/25205-natura-siberica-reputation (accessed 20 April 2020).

6. Kovalevich E.P., Tomasheva I.V. K voprosu ob ispol'zovanii leksem «natural'nyi» i «organicheskii» v naimenovaniiakh kosmeticheskikh produktov [On the use of the lexemes "natural" and "organic" in the names of cosmetic products]. Russkii Iazyk i kul'tura v Zerkale Perevoda, 2015, no.1, pp.314-321.

7. Angel D.F., Blackwell R.D., Miniard P.W. Povedenie potrebitelei [Consumer behavior]. Saint Petersburg, Piter, 1999, 759 p.

8. Derzhivitskii E.V., Larionov I.Iu., Perov V.Iu. K voprosu ob etike prava [Revisiting the ethics of law]. The Bulletin of St Petersburg State University. Philosophy and Conflictology, 2016, no.4, pp.33-45.

9. Lefevr A. Proizvodstvo prostranstva [Production of space]. Moscow, StrelkaPress, 2015, 432 p.

10. Castells M. Galaktika Internet: Razmyshleniia ob Internete, biznese i obshchestve [Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business and Society]. Ekaterinburg, U-Faktoriia, Gumanitarnyi universitet, 2004, 328 p.

11. Bell D. Griadushchee postindustrial'noe obshchestvo [The coming of post-industrial society]. Moscow, Academia, 1999, 944 p.

12. Manovich L. Iazyk novykh media [The language of new media]. Moscow, Ad Marginem Press, 2018, 399 p.

13. Dijk J. van. The Network Society. Social Aspects of New Media. 2nd Edition. Lnd., SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006, 272 p.

14. Collins D. Business Ethics: Best Practices for Designing and Managing Ethical Organizations. 2nd Edition. Sage Publications, 2018, 608 p.

15. De George R.T. Delovaia etika [Business ethics]. Saint Petersburg, Ekonomicheskaia shkola, Moscow, Progress, 2001, vol. 1, 496 p.

16. Tsikhotskaia O.S. Prodvizhenie produktsii kompanii «NATURA SIBERICA» v sotsial'nykh setiakh s pomoshch'iu sredstv integrirovannykh kommunikatsii [Promotion of products of the company "NATURA SIBERICA" in social networks using the means of integrated communications]. Tvorchestvo molodykh: iskusstvo, dizain, mediatekhnologii. Sbornik nauchnykh statei XIX Vserossiiskoi nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii. Omsk, Izdatel'stvo Omskogo gosudarstvennogo tekhnicheskogo universiteta, 2020, pp.129-134.

The article focuses on the revolutionary ethics of the Russian intelligentsia based on the idea of the service to the people, sacrifice and the possibility of using violence in the struggle for a future happy society. The revolutionary ethics based on violence was expressed in the fact that the very idea of revolution became absolute. Inherent in the revolutionary movement was a fanatical readiness to sacrifice themselves and others to the abstract idea of revolutionary victory for the sake of abstract human happiness. Revolutionary ethics subverted the religious values that preserved the moral health of society. To be sure, the idea of revolutionary violence was primarily shaped by the subversive activities of the revolutionary Russian intelligentsia. But this process was also shaped by other events of world history. Researchers have noted the great influence of the First World War, in which Russia was drawn by the ruling elite. Maintaining the stability of society on the basis of empathy and respect for human life was also one of the tendencies of the era which the revolutionary intelligentsia ignored. This tendency was expressed in Tolstoy's doctrine of non-violence (non-resistance to evil with violence) and also in collections of articles “Problems of Idealism” (1902), “Milestones” (1909), and “From Depth” (1918), which expressed religious and ethical values.

The practices of embodying revolutionary ethics from February to October 1917 in the Urals on the basis of archival historical sources have also been considered in the article. The February Revolution of 1917 intensified the politicization of public consciousness which was largely tragic (including intelligentsia) in conditions of the general low level of culture of the masses.

The author concludes that the democratization of the political life of the Russian society in February - October 1917 was accompanied by the implementation of the ideas of revolutionary overthrow of the existing foundations, developed by the revolutionary intelligentsia. This process was complemented by the destructive instincts of the masses, and the Bolsheviks’ coming to power in October 1917 was a visible embodiment of the violent seizure of power.

Keywords:

revolution, ethics, violence, values, class morality, the intelligentsia, the Urals, Tolstoyism.

Gulsina D. Selyaninova – Candidate of Sciences in History,
Associate Professor, Department of Public Administration and History,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9928-7333, e-mail: gsina@mail.ru.

1. Iudin A.I. Ideia viny russkoi intelligentsia [The idea of guilt of the Russian intelligentsia]. Tomsk State University Journals, 1998, iss. 2, pp. 61- 66.

2. Buldakov V.P. Krasnaia smuta. Priroda i posledstviia revoliutsionnogo nasiliia [Red confusion. The nature and consequences of revolutionary violence]. Moscow, Rossiiskaia politicheskaia entsiklopediia (ROSSPEN), 1997, 376 p.

3. Rimskii V.P., Reznik S.V., Miul`gaupt K.E. Uchenie L.N.Tolstogo o nasilii i nenasilii v zerkale russkikh revoliutsii [Leo Tolstoy's doctrine of violence and non-violence in the mirror of Russian revolutions]. Nauka, Iskusstvo, Kul`tura, 2017, iss. 3(15), 75-93 p.

4. Nikonova T.A. Roman «Mat`» kak katekhizis revoliutsionera: formirovanie revoliutsionnoi etiki [The novel "Mother" as a catechism of a revolutionary: the formation of revolutionary ethics]. ACTA ERUDITIRUM, 2019, iss. 31, pp. 91-96.

5. Kara-Murza A.A. Kritika revoliutsionnogo soznaniia v rabotakh Semena Liudvigovicha Franka (140-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia) [Criticism of revolutionary consciousness in the works of Semyon Ludwigovich Frank (140th birthday anniversary)]. Filosofskii Zhurnal, 2017, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 41-48.

6. Lavrova E.M. Problema etiki revoliutsionera v politicheskoi bor`be 1917 g. [The problem of the ethics of a revolutionary in the political struggle of 1917]. Vestnik Leningradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta Imeni A.S.Pushkina, 2015, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 90-100.

7. Riabova T.I. Revoliutsionno-utilitarnaia etika bol`shevizma i sud`ba khudozhestvennoi intelligentsia [The revolutionary utilitarian ethics of Bolshevism and the fate of the artistic intelligentsia]. Dobychinskie chteniia v Brianske. Materialy vserossiiskoi nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii s mezhdunarodnym uchastiem. Ed. O.V. Voronicheva, 2018, pp. 106-114.

8. Ovchinnikova E.A. Moral` i eticheskaia teoriia v otechestvennoi kul`ture porevoliutsionnogo perioda (20-e gg. XX veka) [Morality and ethical theory in the domestic culture of the post-revolutionary period (20s of the twentieth century)]. Studia Culturae, 2016,
iis. 4 (30), pp. 30-39.

9. Rostotskaia M.A.Moral`no-eticheskaia paradigma revoliutsionnogo kino 1920-kh godov [The moral and ethical paradigm of the revolutionary cinema of the 1920s]. Teatr. Zhivopis`. Kino. Muzyka, 2014, no. 1, pp. 129-150.

10. Guseinov A.A. Etika Trotskogo, ili o vazhneishem moral`nom uroke Oktiabr`skoi revoliutsii i sovetskogo sotsial`nogo eksperimenta [Trotsky's Ethics, or the Most Important Moral Lesson of the October Revolution and the Soviet Social Experiment]. Vedomosti Prikladnoi Etiki, 2018, no. 51, pp. 94-111.

11. Buller A. Moral` i iazyk bol`shevizma [Morality and language of Bolshevism]. Eticheskaia mysl`, 2020, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 112-129.

12. Anatomiia revoliutsii: 1917 g. v Rossii: massy, partii, vlast`: mater. kollokviuma 11-15 ianvaria 1993 g. [Anatomy of the revolution: 1917 in Russia: the masses, parties, power: mater. Colloquium 11-15 January 1993]. Saint Petersburg, Glagol, 1994, 445 p.

13. Marks K., Engel`s F. Kritika Gotskoi programmy [Criticism of the Gotha program]. Moscow, Izdatel`stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1962, vol. 19, pp. 9-32.

14. Lunacharskii A.V. Religiia i sotsializm [Religion and socialism]. Saint Petersburg, 1908, 1911 p.

15. Berdiaev N.A. Kto vinovat? [Who is guilty?]. Sobranie sochinenii. Vol. 4. Paris, 1990, 898 p.

16. Kolonitskii B.I. Antiburzhuaznaia propaganda i “antiburzhuiskoe” soznanie [Anti-bourgeois propaganda and "anti-bourgeois" consciousness]. Anatomiia revoliutsii: 1917 g. v Rossii: massy, partii, vlast`: materialy kollokviuma 11-15 ianvaria 1993 g. Saint Petersburg, Glagol, 1994, pp. 188-202.

17. Obukhov L.A. Khronika 1917 goda [Chronicle of 1917]. RETROspektiva, 2007, no. 5, pp. 12-19.

18. Kollektsiia dokumentov po istorii rabochego i revoliutsionnogo dvizheniia i ustanovleniia Sovetskoi vlasti na Urale [Collection of documents on the history of the workers' and revolutionary movement and the establishment of Soviet power in the Urals]. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sverdlovskoi Oblasti, f. r – 2601, op. 1, d. 111, 112.

19. Anichkov V.P. Ekaterinburg-Vladivostok. 1917 – 1922 [Yekaterinburg-Vladivostok. 1917 – 1922]. Moscow, Russkii put`, 1998, 368 p.

20. Tiutiukin S.V. Men`shevizm: stranitsy istorii [Menshevism: pages of history]. Moscow, ROSSPEN, 2002, 560 p.

21. Men`shchikov Fir Rodionovich - kraeved (1902-1978) [Menshchikov Fir Rodionovich - ethnographer (1902-1978)]. Ob"edinennyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Cheliabinskoi Oblasti, f. r-1726, op. 1, d. 10.

22. Zaural`skii krai [Trans-Urals Territory]. 1917. April 22.

23. Zaural`skii krai [Trans-Urals Territory]. 1917. May 6.

24. Novgorodtsev P.I. O putiakh i zadachakh russkoi intelligentsia [On the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia]. Iz glubiny: Sbornik statei o russkoi revoliuysii [From the Depths: Collection of Articles on the Russian Revolution]. Moscow, Izdatel`stvo Moskovskogo Universiteta, 1990, 298 p.

25. Apresian R. Novaia etika: v Rossii meniaetsia otnoshenie k revoliutsii [New ethics: attitudes towards revolution are changing in Russia], available at: https://www.rbc.ru/spb_sz/04/11/2017/59fc83719a79477dc9c4e601 https://www.rbc.ru/spb_sz/04/11/2017/59fc83719a7 (accessed 6 July 2021).

The topic of study was chosen and determined by the raised interest in the difficulties of the history of vocational and technical education. This subject attracts the focus of figures from various areas of scientific knowledge. The Russian system of vocational and technical education has been solving the problems of teaching highly qualified workers in all spheres of the national economy. The aim of our work is to reveal and analyze the prevalent trends in the development of science in realizing the difficulties in the history of vocational and technical education in the Soviet Union.

Analysis of the author's abstracts of modern dissertation research on the history of Soviet vocational and technical education has been presented in the article. This analysis was done for the period of 2001-2020. The methodological foundation of the article is a systematic attitude to the problems of formation and development of Soviet vocational and technical education in current dissertations. To achieve this aim the next methods of historiography as a science are used: comparative-historical, retrospective, concrete and logical analysis, updating.

Today vocational and technical education in Russia is an essential part of the educational system, the part of the national culture and the spiritual being of society. The analysis of the establishment and improvement of vocational and technical education system makes possible to examine the problems of the Russian history. The history of vocational and technical education and training of highly qualified workers allows using own cumulative knowledge and skills to make the current situation analysis in the field of education. Despite the fact that the value of historiography of vocational and technical education formation and improvement in the Soviet Union is impressive, nevertheless, there is a necessity of exchanging the accumulated experience of learning this topic by modern scientists. The study of dissertation research is a new area of activity in Russian historiography.

Due to the made analysis it was revealed the peculiarities of historical formation and improvement of vocational and technical education in the Soviet period shown in modern dissertations. By the example of the Republic of Crimea research tasks concerning the study of this topic have been formulated.

Keywords:

history of Russian vocational education, the Soviet Union, domestic historiography, dissertation research, dissertation defense, scientometric analysis, Doctor of Science degree, nomenclature of specialties.

Valery A. Dozmorov – Postgraduate Student, Lecturer,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8027-7277, e-mail: Dozmorov-Valeriy@yandex.ru.

1. Zakharovskii L.V. Sovetskaia model' professional'no-tekhnicheskogo obrazovaniia: aktualizatsiia opyta v sovremennykh usloviiakh [The Soviet model of vocational education: actualization of experience in modern conditions]. Ekaterinburg, Izdatel'stvo Rossiiskogo gosudarstvennogo professional'no- pedagogicheskogo universiteta, 2015, 104 р.
2. Proshanov S.L. Doktorskie dissertatsii po sotsiologii (1990-2010 gg.) [Doctoral dissertations in sociology (1990-2010)]. Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia, 2011, no. 1 (321), рр. 30-39.
3. Ignatova O.I. Analiz dissertatsionnykh issledovanii v oblasti nachal'nogo i doshkol'nogo obrazovaniia [Analysis of dissertation research in the field of primary and preschool education]. Gumanitarnye Nauki, 2015, no.4 (32), pp. 178-188.
4. Moroshkina N.V., Gershkovich V.A. Tipologiia empiricheskikh issledovanii v psikhologii [Typology of empirical research in psychology]. Vestnik Sankt-Peterburgskogo Universiteta. Psihologiia, 2016, no. 1, рр. 80-99.
5. Seletkov S.G. Teoreticheskie polozheniia dissertatsionnogo issledovaniia [Theoretical provisions of the dissertation research]. Izhevsk, Izdatel'stvo Izhevskogo gosudarstvennogo tekhnicheskogo universiteta, 2011, 344 р.
6. Kubriak O.V., Krivoshei I.V. Analiz nauchnoi oblasti na primere obzora dissertatsionnykh rabot [Analysis of the scientific field on the example of the review of dissertations]. Monitoring Obshchestvennogo Mneniia: Ekonomicheskie i Sotsial`nye Peremeny, 2016, no. 6 (136), рр. 51-68.
7. Rozhkov A.Iu. Molodoi chelovek v sovetskoi Rossii 1920-kh godov: povsednevnaia zhizn` v gruppakh sverstnikov (shkol`niki, studenty`, krasnoarmeitsy) [A young man in Soviet Russia in the 1920s: everyday life in a group of peers (schoolchildren, students, Red Army soldiers)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Krasnodar, 2003, 493 p.
8. Karmanov P.K. Professional`no-tekhnicheskoe obrazovanie v Vostochnoi Sibiri (1940–2000gg.) [Vocational and technical education in Eastern Siberia (1940-2000)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Krasnoiarsk, 2004, 297 p.
9. Mikhailova S.Iu. Trud rabochei molodezhi v promyshlennosti Mariiskoi, Mordovskoi i Chuvashskoi respublik: istoricheskie uroki, sotsial'nyi opyt serediny 1950-kh – serediny 1980-kh gg. [Labor of working youth in the industry of the Mari, Mordovian and Chuvash Republics: historical lessons, social experiences of the mid-1950s – mid-1980s]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Cheboksary, 2007, 431 р.
10. Novikov S.G. Vospitanie rabochei molodezhi v usloviiakh forsirovannoi modernizatsii Rossii (1917–1930-e gody) [Education of working youth in the conditions of forced modernization of Russia (1917–1930s`)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Volgograd, 2008, 384 p.
11. Popov V.P. Gosudarstvennaia politika razvitiia srednego spetsial`nogo obrazovaniia v Rossii: istoricheskii opyt i realizatsiia. 1920 – 2005 gg. [State policy for the development of secondary special education in Russia: historical experience and implementation. 1920-2000]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Moscow, 2007, 525 р.
12. Kirillov P.V. Gosudarstvennaia politika modernizatsii professional`nogo obrazovaniia v Rossii (konets 1980-kh – 2005 gg.) [State policy of modernization of vocational education in Russia (late 1980s-2005)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Moscow, 2007,535 р.
13. Tarasova S.V. Istoricheskii opyt razrabotki i realizatsii proektov reformirovaniia sistemy obrazovaniia Rossiiskoi Federatsii v 1984 – 2004 gg. [Historical experience of the development and implementation of projects for the reform of the education system of the Russian Federation in 1984-2004]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Moscow, 2008, 426 р.
14. Kornilova I.M. Istoricheskii opyt podgotovki kadrov narodnogo khoziaistva v natsional`nykh raionakh Povolzh`ia (1918 – 1991 gg.) [Historical experience of training personnel of the national economy in the national regions of the Volga Region (1918-1991)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Astrakhan`, 2009, 591 р.
15. Tiurina Iu.A. Transformatsiia obrazovaniia v sovetskoi i postsovetskoi Rossii: sravnitel`nyi analiz [Transformation of education in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia: comparative analysis]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Saint Petersburg, 2010, 528 р.
16. Abdulloev M.Kh. Narodnoe obrazovanie Tadzhikistana v 60 – 80 gody XX veka: istoriia i problemy razvitiia [National education of Tajikistan in the 60-80 years of the XX century: history and problems of development]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Dushanbe, 2012, 313 р.
17. Gordin A.A. Formirovanie i razvitie promyshlennykh kadrov na sovetskom predpriiatii. 1929 – seredina 60-kh gg.: sotsiokul`turnyi aspekt (na materialakh Gor`kovskogo avtozavoda) [Formation and development of industrial personnel at the Soviet enterprise. 1929-mid-60s: socio-cultural aspect (based on the material of the Gorky Automobile Plant)]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Nizhnii Novgorod, 2012, 244 р.
18. Igtisamova G.R. Professional`noe obrazovanie v Rossii: istoriko-pedagogicheskii analiz [Professional education in Russia: historical and pedagogical analysis]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Nizhnii Novgorod, 2012, 554 р.
19. Lidzheeva K.F. Razvitie sfery obrazovaniia v natsional`nykh raionakh iuga Rossii v 1918 – 1941 gg.: sravnitel`no-istoricheskii analiz [Development of the sphere of education in the national regions of Southern Russia in 1918-1941: comparative-historical analysis]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Astrakhan`, 2014, 401 р.
20. Tsorieva I.T. Gosudarstvennaia politika v sfere obrazovaniia, nauki i khudozhestvennoi kul`tury Severnoi Osetii vo vtoroi polovine 1940-kh – pervoi polovine 1980-kh gg. [State policy in the field of education, science and artistic culture of North Ossetia in the second half of the 1940s – the first half of the 1980s]. Doctor’s degree dissertation. Vladikavkaz, 2015, 484 р.